Towards the end of the eighteenth century, at the height of the German Enlightenment, Immanuel Kant developed a revolutionary theory of space and geometry that aimed to explain the distinctive relation of the mathematical science of geometry to our experience of the world around us—both our ordinary perceptual experience of the world in space and the more refined empirical knowledge of this same world afforded by the new mathematical science of nature. From the perspective of our contemporary conception of space and geometry, as it was first developed in the late nineteenth century by such thinkers as Helmholtz, Mach, and Poincaré, Kant’s earlier conception thereby involves a conflation of what we now distinguish as mathematical, perceptual, and physical space. According to this contemporary conception, mathematical space is the object of pure geometry, perceptual space is that within which empirical objects are first given to our senses, and physical space results from applying the propositions of pure geometry to the objects of the (empirical) science of physics—which, first and foremost, studies the motions of such objects in (physical) space. Yet it is essential to Kant’s conception that the three types of space (mathematical, perceptual, and physical) among which we now sharply distinguish are necessarily identical with one another, for it is in precisely this way, for Kant, that a priori knowledge of the empirical world around us is possible.
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