In medieval Islam, religious sciences were subsumed by the concept of ‘ilm (science, ἐπιστήİη?), whereas the concept ma rifat (learning, παιδεία?) subsumed all the other (or foreign or Greek) sciences. The two domains of scholarship had two different types of institutions: the former ones were studied in "madrasas" connected to mosques; the latter ones in hospitals ("bimarestan"). "Dar," "bait," etc. were neutral names, because they could serve as institutes for both kinds of learning. Religious and foreign sciences had two different systems of education. Students of religious sciences learnt the books of a master, who gave his best pupils licence of teaching ("ijazat") his book, who in turn authorized their pupils, and so on through generations from the author of the book until its latest teacher. In foreign sciences master-pupil was, due to the ancient tradition, more similar to father-son relationship. Proponents of religious studies always frowned on students of foreign sciences, who were sometimes in danger, sometimes tolerated by religious leaders, but never in favour. In countries converted later to Islam the introduction of religious scholarship meant the attachment of the learned class through the line of licences their attachment to a tradition coming from Arabia, forgetting their own national traditions.
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