New institutional approaches to the commons have seen a proliferation of work in recent years that has overturned stereotypes of `tragedy' and mismanagement. Much of this work remains centred, however, on the fortunes of individual commons and relates changes in management to local challenges and experiences. This article uses a large sample of by-laws from commons in south-western Germany to show how regulation has emerged as a complex historical process of imposition of rules by lordship, emulation of neighbours and response to crisis; it demonstrates that relying on the internal evidence of individual by-laws can be quite misleading about the circumstances of their creation. The article argues that a major stimulus to by-law recording was intra-communal conflict, and, as the results of negotiated resolution of these disputes, we should be cautious of reading by-laws as records of ecological optimisation rather than attempts to resolve conflicts over the allocation of resources.
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